Trish Fleming

Faecal sample analysis has been the principal method for interpreting animal diet, chosen for its simplicity and ease of non-invasive sampling relative to other sample types. Faecal samples allow diet analysis for scarce or threatened species, with minimal disturbance to their natural behaviour. And where collection can be linked to the individual animal or group, faecal analysis allows unlimited repeated samples to reveal seasonal patterns in diet or responses to experimental treatments. Morphological assessment of undigested remains in faecal samples has been carried out for species ingesting a diverse array of diets, including carnivores, herbivores, nectarivores, frugivores and fungivores. While the morphological method can be time consuming, the wealth of information that can be derived from detailed diet composition through this method has immense ecological value for understanding food webs and species interactions. In this chapter we identify considerations for sample collection in the field, describe laboratory methods for morphological assessment of diet, and detail alternative methods for analysing and presenting dietary data. For each step in the process, and for each alternative method, we identify the advantages and disadvantages of the approach to assist researchers in making an informed choice and robust interpretation of animal diets.

After a prey individual has made the decision to flee from an approaching predator, a range of important behavioral options remain open to it, which can strongly influence the likelihood of flight being successful. We will explore some of these and consider signaling to the chasing predator (and to others) during flight and other ways prey may exploit the predator’s sensory systems. The most obvious way in which prey behavior during flight can influence escape ability is through control of the trajectory of its escape path. We will therefore focus the bulk of the chapter on this issue, not only because it is important, but also because there are many factors that may influence escape trajectory. However, flight logically begins with the initial directional decision. At first sight it seems obvious that prey should turn and flee away from the oncoming predator, but even this is not as simple as it first seems. To discuss this decision most effectively, we first introduce the reader to the concept of directionality in the early phase of an escape response (i.e., the first detectable reaction to a threat). We focus only on certain aspects of behavior during predation attempts in some depth rather than covering all aspects briefly. We have not necessarily chosen the behaviors that might have the strongest influence on the outcome of flight. Rather we have chosen topics where we feel we can offer a fresh perspective on how extensive research in the field could further develop. We will begin by noting a number of topics that we do not explore in detail in this chapter. An important aspect of fleeing behavior is the decision to stop (or at least pause) fleeing. This may occur if the prey perceives that the predator has given up the chase.