Goen Ho

This study investigates the effect of indirect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on the optimal long-term planning and short-term operational scheduling of a desalination-based water supply system. The system was driven by grid-electricity and surplus output from residential rooftop photovoltaics to deliver water and energy to urban areas. The interactive two-level mixed integer linear programming model took into account demands, system configurations, resources capacities and electricity tariffs as well as GHG emission factor associated with the source of grid electricity. Both system and carbon abatement costs were considered in the formulation of the objective function. The optimal decisions for Perth (Australia) resulted in $47,449,276 higher discounted total cost but 51,301.3 tCO2eq less GHG emissions over 15 years planning horizon compared to when only system costs were minimised. Finally, the predominant effect of the indirect GHG emissions costs over system costs on the optimal solutions indicated their high sensitivity towards the source of purchased grid electricity.

Solid waste management facilities invariably generate odors that can be a nuisance issue for workers and the community at large. Prevention and minimization of odor generation through better housekeeping is important, as well as appropriate odor removal treatment methods that are integrated and designed into the waste management facilities from the beginning. Biological odor removal methods have attracted increasing popularity because they have been proven to be cost-effective, obviate the need for chemicals, and entail the lowest impacts to the environment. In this chapter we review odor compounds likely to be generated at solid waste treatment facilities and provide an overview of established and emerging biological methods for odor control. The mechanisms of biological odor removal and factors affecting the performance of bio-treatment processes are described and discussed. A case study of a large-scale odor biofilter at a solid waste composting facility is provided. We conclude by providing a summary, current challenges, and future development potential.

In this study, we reported the one-pot synthesis of mesoporous La(OH)3 adsorbent (Meso-La(OH)3) and its application in phosphate removal for the first time. The synthesized La(OH)3 sample exhibited an irregular particle shape and possessed mesopores. In the phosphate adsorption test, the experiment equilibrium data were fitted better by using the Langmuir model than the Freundlich model, suggesting that the adsorption feature be monolayer. Our results showed that Meso-La(OH)3 had a maximum phosphate adsorption capacity of 57.65 mg P/g.

Decentralised water systems can readily contribute towards water environmental sustainability. It is important to be able to rate environmental sustainability of decentralised systems so that home buyers can have confidence on claims of water sustainability, builders can have guidance on how to improve sustainability, land developers can justify their marketing claims and regulators can assess and regulate promotion of water sustainability of decentralised water systems. The Environmental Technology Centre has developed a rating tool for such a purpose. The rating tool quantifies the volumes of water drawn from all sources and wastewater disposed or reused through all routes, compares these with best practice water use volumes for a decentralised system and arrives at a score out of 10 (equivalent to best practice). The algorithm for the rating tool is implemented using Excel workbook/ worksheets prompting users to enter required input values. Application to four case studies is presented.

Sustainability can be considered as a process of balancing the need for economic development, environmental protection and social justice. Viewed in this way sustainability is a journey because the needs and wishes of society evolve over time. This sustainability journey for water infrastructure is briefly reviewed beginning with provision for piped drinking water, sewerage for removing human wastes and stormwater management infrastructure to protect against flooding. Development of infrastructure for these, while creating societal and economic benefits, has impacted considerably on environmental flow of rivers and water quality of rivers receiving wastewater and stormwater discharges. While efforts have been made to mitigate these environmental Impacts, there have been many ideas, often conflicting, about what sustainability is and how it can be achieved. There has been even less on the end or ideals of the sustainability journey. Three ideals are put forward in the paper, covering the ideal of self-sufficiency, mimicking nature and source separation of wastewater. The first aims to have development relying solely on rainfall within land development/village or urban boundaries The second raises the Ideal further to bring the water cycle within the boundaries towards the natural undeveloped land, while the third follows the natural discharge of urine and faeces separately and onto land for land based development .

A modified appropriate 'sustainable turnkey approach' (STA) was developed, trialled and used to introduce new cottage papermaking technology to an existing papermaking village in a remote highland part of Fiji, an example of a less developed country. The new research explored making a high technology piece of equipment in Suva, the nearest city to the Wainimakutu Village. The STA has empowered a local engineering business and the engineering department of the local university to be able to understand and transfer the 'hardware' (equipment) and 'software' (skills) of these technologies and actually make the machines. The principle Author helped them to adapt and improve the design, to trial it, to test it, and then network with a village to complete the ideals of using the 'best available technology' that is also sustainable, eco-friendly, appropriate and financially viable. The ST A has proved a far superior process. When something goes wrong with the machine it can be adjusted, fixed or modified to work: first in the village; second, with local industry help; third with local university help; and fourth with contacting the inventor for advice and networking with all stakeholders.

During land application of biosolids in forestry, the management of the plantations following biosolids application and the harvesting of the timber, there is a potential for pathogen contamination. When using biosolids cake, the preferred method for land application is to use a 'manure spreader' which throws the biosolids out into the air and allowing it to scatter over the ground. Applications of liquid biosolids can become aerosolised when sprayed into the air, providing a near perfect medium for pathogens to be introduced into the air and be transported via the wind However with biosolids cake the likelihood of the pathogens becoming aerosolised is minimised and therefore a lower pathogen risk is observed. Once the biosolids have been applied to the land, interactions with soil biota can result in limited growth of pathogens, which can reduce the risk. Studies have shown that residents living in the vicinity of land applied with biosolids and workers exposed to biosolids on a daily basis have reported coughing, sore throats, headaches and sinus effects. These findings indicate that there is a health risk associated with the use of biosolids and this review of the literature has shown that there are a number of significant points during the process of utilising biosolids that require some research into assessing the risks that accompany each point and action.

The present chapter assessed the effect of ethanol and woodchips addition on nitrate removal in free water surface/vertical flow wetland microcosms operated at a 6 day hydraulic retention time, one received increasing ethanol concentrations (COD varying from 58 to 336mgfL) and the other received 2140g (9.3 kg/rn2) of dry woodchips. After the addition of COD both system had increased percentage removal of nitrate. COD:N03 ratios applied here with external carbon (16:1 minimum) were higher than the experimental 7:1 reported in the literature for complete denitrification. Excess COD, however, was successfully removed. Parallel to the wetland microcosm, the COD released from woodchips was measured by placing 1OOg woodchips in IL of water, COD was measured and the I L water batch changed weekly. After 65 days the 1OOg of woodchips released a total of 2262mg COD. These trials were preliminary to a large scale constructed wetland receiving up to 2,000 rn3/day of industrial wastewater with high nitrate and low COD. Woodchips, as a low cost biological waste product, can be considered as an alternative to expensive ethanol. Alternatively, the feasibility of using high COD wastewaters from nearby industries is being assessed.

Constructed wetlands have long been internationally recognized as a simple biological wastewater treatment system, but their recognition is limited in Indonesia. To encourage the use of this technology a full-scale constructed wetland using local reeds and treating effluent from a septic tank was designed and constructed with local participants. This initiative was the result of the Sustainable Sanitation and Wetland Technology (SSWT) Project which was a capacity development initiative aimed at improving Indonesian capacity in sanitation. The program combined theory and practice; the participants were provided with information about sustainable sanitation, constructed wetlands and awareness raising methods. At the same time, participants gained practical experience in constructing a wetland and raising awareness of sanitation. The design and delivery of this SSWT Project was based on the application of an emerging Framework for Capacity Development. This Framework was developed as part of an ongoing research project into improving capacity development practice. In this chapter, both the technological and sociological aspects of constructed wetlands and their effectiveness in terms of providing successful sanitation outcomes in Indonesia are presented.

Due to water shortages in most parts of the world, alternative water sources are required for daily activities, such as agriculture and domestic uses. Treated domestic wastewater reuse is gaining acceptance around the world, mainly for non-human contact use. Research is being conducted in using treated domestic effluent to grow edible food crops. However, one of the major concerns with wastewater reuse for food production is the risk of pathogen contamination to the edible parts of the food and to the people exposed to irrigation. Wastewater application in horticulture using hydroponics technology should minimise the exposure and contamination risk to the workers. Since the edible parts of the plant, with the exception of root crops, may not be in direct contact with the wastewater, contamination to the edible parts may also be reduced. This chapter examined two hydroponics systems, nutrient film technique and water culture (without aeration), for their efficiency in causing pathogen die-off. Three treatments, secondary treated domestic wastewater, control medium (commercial hydroponics medium) and pathogen spiked control medium were tested in triplicate. S.typhimurium (ATCCI4028) and E.coli (WACC4) were used to spike one of the treatments (spiked control medium). The experiment was conducted over four months with the medium changed every fortnight. The results showed that there was a general decrease of pathogens over seven days (>40%) in the medium and complete die-off was observed after 14 days (99%), in both types of hydroponics systems. In both systems, there were no pathogens detected in the fruits. The hydroponics techniques for domestic effluent reuse, is a viable option for edible crop production as it reduces the risks of bacterial pathogen contamination.